School counselor

A school counselor is a counselor and an educator who works in elementary, middle, and high schools to provide academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to K-12 students. The interventions used include developmental school counseling curriculum lessons and annual planning for every student, and group and individual counseling.

Older, dated terms for the profession were "guidance counselor" or "educational counselor" but "school counselor" is preferred due to professional school counselors' advocating for every child's academic, career, and personal/social success in every elementary, middle, and high school (ASCA, 2005)^[1]. In the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Pacific, the terms school counselor, school guidance counselor, and guidance teacher are also used with the traditional emphasis career development^[2]. Countries vary in how a school counseling program and school counseling program services are provided based on economics (funding for schools and school counseling programs), social capital (independent versus public schools), and School Counselor certification and credentialing movements in education departments, professional associations, and national and local legislation.^[2]. The major accreditation body for Counselor Education/School Counseling programs is the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), which provides international program accreditation in Counselor Education disciplines including school counseling^[3].

In some countries, school counseling is provided by educational specialists (for example, Botswana, China, Finland, Israel, Malta, Nigeria, Romania, Taiwan, Turkey, United States). In other cases, school counseling is provided by classroom teachers who either have such duties added to their typical teaching load or teach only a limited load that also includes school counseling activities (for example- India, Japan, Mexico, South Korea, Zambia).^[2]. The IAEVG focuses primarily on career development with some international school counseling articles and conference presentationss^[2].

United States

In the United States, the school counseling profession began with the vocational guidance movement at the beginning of the 20th century, now known as career development. Jesse B. Davis was the first to provide a systematic school guidance program. In 1907, he became the principal of a high school and encouraged the school English teachers to use compositions and lessons to relate career interests, develop character, and avoid behavioral problems. Many others during this time did the same. For example, in 1908, Frank Parsons, "Father of Vocational Guidance" established the Bureau of Vocational Guidance to assist young people in making the transition from school to work.

From the 1920s to the 1930s, school counseling and guidance grew because of the rise of progressive education in schools. This movement emphasized personal, social, moral development. Many schools reacted to this movement as anti-educational, saying that schools should teach only the fundamentals of education. This, combined with the economic hardship of the Great Depression, led to a decline in school counseling and guidance. In the 1940s, psychologists and counselors selected, recruited, and trained military personnel. This propelled the counseling movement in schools by providing ways to test students and meet their needs. Schools accepted these military tests openly. Also, Carl Rogers' emphasis on helping relationships during this time influenced the profession of school counseling.

In the 1950s the government established the Guidance and Personnel Services Section in the Division of State and Local School Systems. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. Out of concern that the Russians were winning the space race and that there were not enough scientists and mathematicians, the government passed the National Defense Education Act, spurring growth in vocational guidance through larger funding. In the 1960s, new legislation and professional developments refined the profession (Schmidt^[4], 2003).

The 1960s was also a time of great federal funding for land grant colleges and universities in establishing Counselor Education programs^[5]. School counseling shifted from an exclusive focus on career development to add personal and social issues paralleling the rise of social justice and civil rights movements. In the early 1970s, Dr. Norm Gysbers began shifting the profession from school counselors as solitary professionals into having a comprehensive developmental school counseling program for all students K-12^[6]. He and his colleagues' research evidenced strong correlations between fully implemented school counseling programs and student academic success; a critical part of the evidence base for the profession based on their work in the state of Missouri^[7].

But school counseling in the 1980s and early 1990s was absent from educational reform efforts^[8]. The profession was facing irrelevance as the standards-based educational movement gained strength with little evidence of systemic effectiveness for school counselors. In response,^[9] consulted with elementary, middle, and high school counselors and created the ASCA National Standards for School Counseling with three core domains (Academic, Career, Personal/Social), nine standards, and specific competencies and indicators for K-12 students^[6]. A year later, the first systemic meta-analysis of school counseling was published and gave a wake-up call to focus on outcome research in academic, career, and personal/social domains^[10].

In the late 1990s, a former mathematics teacher, school counselor, and administrator, Pat Martin, was hired by The Education Trust^[11] to focus the school counseling profession on closing the achievement gap that harmed children and adolescents of color, poor and working class children and adolescents, bilingual children and adolescents and children and adolescents with disabilities. Martin developed focus groups of K-12 students, parents, guardians, teachers, building leaders, and superintendents, and interviewed professors of School Counselor Education. She hired a school counselor educator from Oregon State University, Dr. Reese House, and they co-created what emerged in 2003 as the National Center for Transforming School Counseling (NCTSC).^[12]

The NCTSC focused on both changing school counselor education at the graduate level and changing school counselor practice in local districts to teach school counselors how to prevent, intervene with, and close achievement and opportunity gaps. In the focus groups, they found what Hart & Jacobi^[13] had indicated—-too many school counselors were gatekeepers for the status quo instead of advocates for the academic success of every child and adolescent. Too many school counselors used inequitable practices, supported inequitable school policies, and were unwilling to change.

This professional behavior kept many students from non-dominant backgrounds (i.e., students of color, poor and working class students, students with disabilities, and bilingual students) from getting the rigorous coursework and academic, career, and college access skills needed to successfully graduate from high school and pursue post-secondary options including college. They funded six $500,000 grants for six Counselor Education/School Counseling programs, with a special focus on rural and urban settings, to transform their school counseling programs to include a focus on teaching school counselor candidates advocacy, leadership, teaming and collaboration, equity assessment using data, and culturally competent program counseling and coordination in 1998 (Indiana State University, University of Georgia, University of West Georgia, University of California-Northridge, University of North Florida, and Lewis & Clark University) and then over 25 other Counselor Education/School Counseling programs joined as companion institutions in the following decade^[11]. By 2008, NCTSC consultants had worked in over 100 school districts and major cities and rural areas to transform the work of school counselors.

In 2002, the American School Counselor Association released the ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs, written by Dr. Trish Hatch and Dr. Judy Bowers, comprising key school counseling components into one model—the work of Drs. Norm Gysbers, Curly & Sharon Johnson, Robert Myrick, Carol Dahir & Cheri Campbell's ASCA National Standards, and the skill-based focus for closing gaps from the Education Trust's Pat Martin and Dr. Reese House into one document^[6]. In 2003, the Center for School Counseling Outcome Research^[14] was developed as a clearinghouse for evidence-based practice with regular research briefs disseminated and original research projects developed and implemented with founding director Dr. Jay Carey. One of the research fellows, Dr. Tim Poynton, developed the EZAnalyze^[15] software program for all school counselors to use as free-ware to assist in using data-based interventions and decision-making.

In 2004, the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors was revised to focus on issues of equity, closing gaps, and ensuring all K-12 students received access to a school counseling program^[16]. Also in 2004, Pat Martin moved to the College Board and hired School Counselor Educator Dr. Vivian Lee. They developed an equity-focused entity on school counselors' role in college counseling, the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA)^[17]. NOSCA has developed research scholarships for research on college counseling by K-12 school counselors and how it is taught in School Counselor Education programs. On January 1, 2006, the USA Congress declared the first week of February National School Counseling Week, which grew out of advocacy from ASCA members.

In 2008, the first NOSCA study was released by Dr. Jay Carey and colleagues focused on innovations in selected College Board "Inspiration Award" schools where school counselors collaborated inside and outside their schools for high college-going rates and strong college-going cultures in schools with large numbers of students of non-dominant backgrounds^[18]. In 2008, ASCA released School Counseling Competencies focused on assisting school counseling programs to effectively implement the ASCA Model^[16]. Also in 2008, in support of the ASCA Model and new vision^[19] school counseling, Dr. Rita Schellenberg introduced standards blending as a cross-walking approach to align school counseling with the academic achievement mission of schools as well as two data-based reporting systems, SCORE and SCOPE.^[20][21][22].

In 2009, NOSCA released a national study under the leadership of Dr. Vicki Brooks-McNamara addressing the school counselor/principal connection with specific recommendations for best practices in collaborative leadership in school counseling. In 2010, the Center for Excellence in School Counseling and Leadership (CESCAL) co-sponsored the first school counseling conference devoted to the needs of lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgendered students in San Diego, California,^[23].

School counselor roles, school counseling program framework, professional associations, and ethics

Professional school counselors ideally implement a^[14] school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement.^[6]. A framework for appropriate and inappropriate school counselor responsibilities and roles is outlined in the ASCA National Model^[6]. School counselors, in most USA states, usually have a Master's degree in school counseling from a Counselor Education graduate program. In Canada, they must be licensed teachers with additional school counseling training and focus on academic, career, and personal/social issues. China requires at least three years of college experience. In Japan, school counselors were added in the mid-1990s, part-time, primarily focused on behavioral issues. In Taiwan, they are often teachers with recent legislation requiring school counseling licensure focused on individual and group counseling for academic, career, and personal issues. In Korea, school counselors are mandated in middle and high schools.

School counselors are employed in elementary, middle, and high schools, and in district supervisory settings and in counselor education faculty positions (usually with an earned Ph.D. in Counselor Education in the USA or related graduate doctorates abroad), and post-secondary settings doing academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social counseling, consultation, and program coordination. Their work includes a focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages(Schmidt^[4], 2003).

Professional school counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social development (Dahir & Campbell, 1997; ASCA, 2005) with an increased emphasis on college access^[24]. Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom teaching|instruction, appraisal, consultation, psychotherapy, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods (such as the^[25] or^[26] (based on the^[27]) to help students explore career and college needs and interests.

School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the school counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral issue(s), and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to family members such as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and adolescent development, and help with school-home transitions.

School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education, diversity and multiculturalism (Portman, 2009), and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama (Schmidt^[4], 2003).

School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to all students in their schools. For example, the ASCA National Model^[6] includes the following four main areas:

• Foundation - a written school counseling program mission statement, a beliefs and philosophy statement, and a focus on the ASCA standards and competencies and how they are implemented for every student;
• Delivery System - how lessons and individual and group counseling are delivered;
• Management System (use of calendars, time, building leader-school counselor role agreements, creation of action plans); and
• Accountability System - use of a School Counseling program audit, results reports, and school counselor performance evaluations based on 13 key competencies.

The model is implemented using key skills from the Education Trust's Transforming School Counseling Initiative: Advocacy, Leadership, Teaming and Collaboration, and Systemic Change^[11].

School Counselors around the world are affiliated with national and regional school counseling associations including: Asociacion Argentina de Counselors (AAC-Argentina), American Counseling Association (ACA-USA), African Counseling Association (AfCA), American School Counselor Association (ASCA-USA), Associacao Portuguesa de Psicoterapia centrada na Pessoa e de Counselling (APPCPC-Portugal), Australian Guidance and Counselling Association (AGCA), British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP-UK), Canadian Counseling Association (CCA)/Association Canadienne de Counseling (ACC), Center for Excellence in School Counseling and Leadership(CESCaL) (USA), Center for School Counseling Outcome Research (CSCOR-USA) Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP-USA and international), Counselling Children and Young People (BACP affiliate, UK), Counseling & Psychotherapy in Scotland (COSCA), Cypriot Association of School Guidance Counsellors (OELMEK), European Counseling Association (ECA), France Ministry of Education, Federacion Espanola de Orientacion y Psicopedagogia (FEOP-Spain), Department of Education-Malta, Hellenic Society of Counselling and Guidance (HESCOG-Greece), Hong Kong Association of Guidance Masters and Career Masters (HKAGMCM), Institute of Guidance Counselors (IGC) (Ireland), International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG)/Association Internationale d'Orientation Scolaire et Professionnelle (AIOSP)/ Internationale Vereinigung für Schul- und Berufsberatung (IVSBB)/Asociación Internacional para la Orientación Educativa y Profesional(AIOEP), International Baccalaureate (IB), International Vanguard of Counsellors (IVC), Kenya Association of Professional Counselors (KAPC), National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC, USA), National Center for Transforming School Counseling (NCTSC) at The Education Trust (USA), National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) at The College Board (USA), New Zealand Association of Counsellors/Te Roopu Kaiwhiriwhiri o Aotearoa (NZAC), Counseling Association of Nigeria (CASSON), Philippine Guidance and Counseling Association (PGCA), Overseas Association of College Admissions Counselors (OACAC, an affiliate of National Association of College Admissions Counselors-USA), Singapore Association for Counseling (SAC), and the Taiwan Guidance and Counseling Association (TGCA)^[28].

School Counselors are expected to follow a professional code of ethics in many countries. For example, In the USA, they are the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) School Counselor Ethical Code^[16] and the American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics^[29].

References

Evidence- and research-based school counseling articles, books, DVDs

Abilities, Disabilities, Gifts, Talents, and Special Education in School Counseling

• Bauman, S. S. M. (2010). School counselors and survivors of childhood cancer: Reconceptualizing and advancing the cure. Professional School Counseling, 14, 156-164.
• Hamlet, H. S., Gergar, P. G., & Shaefer, B. A. (2011). Students living with chronic illness: The school counselor's role. Professional school counseling, 14, 202-210.
• Marshak, L. E., Dandeneau, C. J., Prezant, F. P., & L'Amoreaux, N. A. (2009). The school counselor's guide to helping students with disabilities. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
• Milsom, A. (2007). Interventions to assist students with disabilities through school transitions. Professional School Counseling, 10, 273-278.
• Milsom, A. (2006). Creating positive school experiences for students with disabilities. Professional School Counseling, 10, 66-72.
• Milsom, A., & Dietz, L. (2009). Defining college readiness for students with learning disabilities: A Delphi study. Professional School Counseling, 12, 315-323.
• Peterson, J. S. (2006). Addressing counseling needs of gifted students. Professional School Counseling, 10, 43-51.
• Trolley, B. C., Haas, H. S., & Patti, D. C. (2009). The school counselor's guide to special education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Academic Achievement Interventions, Closing Achievement Gaps

• Blanco, P. J., & Ray, D. C. (2011). Play therapy in elementary schools: A best practice for improving academic achievement. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89, 235-243.
• Bodenhorn, N., Wolfe, E. W., & Airen, O. E. (2010). School counselor program choice and self-efficacy: Relationship to achievement gap and equity. Professional School Counseling, 13, 165-174.
• Brigman, G. A., & Campbell, C. (2003). Helping students improve academic achievement and school success behavior. Professional School Counseling, 7, 91-98.
• Brigman, G. A., Webb, L. D., & Campbell, C. (2007). Building skills for school success: Improving the academic and social competence of students. Professional School Counseling, 10, 279-288.
• Bruce, A. M., Getch, Y. Q., & Ziomek-Daigle, J. (2009). Closing the gap: A group counseling approach to improve test performance of African-American students. Professional School Counseling, 12, 450-457.
• Cholewa, B., & West-Olatunji, C. (2008). Exploring the relationship among cultural discontinuity, psychological distress, and academic achievement outcomes for low-income, culturally diverse students. "Professional School Counseling, 12," 54-61.
• Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2007). School counseling to close the achievement gap: A social justice framework for success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2007). Transitioning to high school: Issues and challenges for African American students. Professional School Counseling, 10, 253-260.
• Johnson, R. S. (2002). Using data to close the achievement gap: How to measure equity in our schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
• Miranda, A., Webb, L., Brigman, G., & Peluso, P. (2007). Student success skills: A promising program to close the aademic cachievment gaps of African American and Latino Students. Professional School Counseling, 10, 490-497.
• Poynton, T. A., Carlson, M. W., Hopper, J. A., & Carey, J. C. (2006). Evaluating the impact of an innovative approach to integrate conflict resolution into the academic curriculum on middle school students' academic achievement. Professional School Counseling, 9, 190-196.
• Schellenberg, R., & Grothaus, T. (2011). Using culturally competent responsive services to improve student achievement and behavior. Professional School Counseling, 14, 222-230.
• Schellenberg, R., & Grothaus, T. (2009). Promoting cultural responsiveness and closing the achievement gap with standards blending. Professional School Counseling, 12, 440-449.
• Schellenberg, R. (2008). The new school counselor: Strategies for universal academic achievement. Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield Education.
• Sciarra, D. T. (2010). Predictive factors in intensive math course-taking in high school. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 196-207.
• Trusty, J., Mellin, E. A., & Herbert, J. T. (2008). Closing achievement gaps: Roles and tasks of elementary school counselors. Elementary School Journal, 108, 407-421
• Tucker, C., Dixon, A., & Griddine, K. (2010). Academically successful African American male urban high school students' experiencing of mattering to others at school. Professional School Counseling, 14, 135-145.
• Villalba, J. A., Akos, P., Keeter, K., & Ames, A. (2007). Promoting Latino student achievement and development through the ASCA National Model. Professional School Counseling, 12, 272-279.
• Webb, L. D., & Brigman, G. A. (2006). Student success skills: Tools and strategies for improved academic and social outcomes. Professional School Counseling, 10, 112-120.
• West-Olatunji, C., Shure, L, Pringle, R., Adams, T., Lewis, D., & Cholewa, B. (2010). Exploring how school counselors position low-income African American girls as mathematics and science learners. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 184-195.

Accountability; Evidence- and Data-Based School Counseling

• Carey, J. C., Dimmitt, C., Hatch, T. A., Lapan, R. T., & Whiston, S. C. (2008). Report of the national panel for evidence-based school counseling: Outcome research coding protocol and evaluation of student success skills and second step. Professional School Counseling, 11, 197-206.
• Camizzi, E., Clark, M. A., Yacco, S., & Goodman, W. (2009). Becoming "difference makers": School-university collaboration to create, implement, and evaluate data-driven counseling interventions. Professional School Counseling, 12, 471-479.
• Dahir, C. A., & Stone, C. B. (2009). School counselor accountability: The path to social justice and systemic change. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87, 12-20.
• Dimmitt, C., Carey, J. C., & Hatch, T. (2007). Evidence-based school counseling: Making a difference with data-driven practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Gruman, D. H., & Hoelzen, B. (2011). Determining responsiveness to school counseling interventions using behavioral observations. Professional School Counseling, 14, 183-90.
• Hayes, R. L., Nelson, J.-L., Tabin, M., Pearson, G., & Worthy, C. (2002). Using school-wide data to advocate for student success. Professional School Counseling, 6, 86-95.
• Holcomb-McCoy, C., Gonzalez, I., & Johnston, G. (2009). School counselor dispositions as predictors of data usage. Professional School Counseling, 12, 343-351
• Isaacs, M. L. (2003). Data-driven decision-making: The engine of accountability. Professional School Counseling, 6," 288-295.
• Poynton, T. A. (2009). Evaluating the effectiveness of a professional development workshop to increase school counselors' use of data: The role of technology. Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 1, 29-48.
• Poynton, T. A., & Carey, J. C. (2006). An integrated model of data-based decision making for school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 10, 121-130.
• Sink, C. A. (2009). School counselors as accountability leaders: Another call for action. Professional School Counseling, 13, 68-74.
• Sink, C. A., & Spencer, L. R. (2005). My Class Inventory-Short Form as an accountability tool for elementary school counselors to measure classroom climate. Professional School Counseling, 9, 37-48.
• Stone, C. B., & Dahir, C. A. (2011). School counselor accountability: A MEASURE of student success (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
• Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2009). Making data work (2nd ed.) Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association

Advocacy, Empowerment, Equity, Social Justice

• Akos, P., Lambie, G. W., Milsom, A., & Gilbert, K. (2007). Early adolescents' aspirations and academic tracking: An exploratory investigation. Professional School Counseling, 11," 57-64
• Bemak, F., & Chung, R. C.-Y. (2005). Advocacy as a critical role for urban school counselors: Working toward equity and social justice. Professional School Counseling, 8, 196-202.
• Bryan, J., Moore-Thomas, C., Day-Vines, N. L., Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Mitchell, N. (2009). Characteristics of students who receive school counseling services: Implications for practice and research. Journal of School Counseling, 7,.
• Hipolito-Delgado, C. P., & Lee, C. C. (2007). Empowerment theory for the professional school counselor: A manifesto for what really matters. Professional School Counseling, 10, 327-332.
• Ratts, M., DeKruyf, L., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2008). The ACA Advocacy Competencies: A social justice advocacy framework for professional school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 11, 90-97.
• Singh, A. A., Urbano, A., Haston, M., & McMahon, E. (2010). School counselors' strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 135-145.
• Smith, L., Davis, K., & Bhowmik, M. (2010). Youth participatory action research groups as school counseling interventions. Professional School Counseling, 14, 174-182.
• Studer, J. R. (2005). The professional school counselor: An advocate for students. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

ASCA Model & Standards; School Counseling Programs and Academic Success

• Alberta Education, Special Education Branch (1995). From position to program: Building a comprehensive school guidance and counselling program: Planning and resource guide. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Author.
• American School Counselor Association/Hatch, T. & Bowers, J. (2005). The ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs, (2nd ed.) Alexandria, VA: Author.
• Barna, J. S., & Brott, P. E. (2011). How important is personal-social development to academic achievement? The elementary school counselor's perspective. Professional School Counseling, 14, 242-249.
• Campbell, C. A., & Dahir, C. A. (1997). The national standards for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.
• Clemens, E. V., Carey, J. C., Harrington, K. M . (2010). The School Counseling Program Implementation Survey: Initial instrument development and exploratory factor analysis. Professional School Counseling, 14, 125-134.
• Corbin, D. S., & McNaughton, K. (2004). Perceived needs of educational administrators for student services offices in a Chinese context: School counselling programs addressing the needs of children and teachers. School Psychology International, 25, 373-382.
• Dahir, C. A., Burnham, J. J., & Stone, C. (2009). Listen to the voices: School counselors and comprehensive school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 12, 182-192.
• Dimmitt, C., & Carey, J. (2007). Using the ASCA National Model to facilitate school transitions. Professional School Counseling, 10, 227-232.
• Fitch, T. J., & Marshall, J. L. (2004). What counselors do in high-achieving schools: A study on the role of the school counselor. Professional School Counseling, 7, 172-177.
• Hatch, T., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2008). School counselor beliefs about ASCA National Model school counseling program components using the SCPCS. Professional School Counseling, 12, 34-42.
• Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Mitchell, N. (2005). A descriptive study of urban school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 8, 203-209.
• Johnson, S., & Johnson, C. D. (2003). Results-based guidance: A systems approach to student support programs. Professional School Counseling, 6, 180-185.
• Lapan, R. T. (2001). Results-based comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: A framework for planning and evaluation. Professional School Counseling, 4.
• Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Petroski, G. F. (2001). Helping seventh graders be safe and successful in school: A statewide study of comprehensive guidance and counseling programs. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 320-330.
• Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: A statewide evaluation study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 292-302.
• Lee, V. V., & Goodnough, G. E. (2011). Systemic, data-driven school counseling practice and programming for equity. In B. T. Erford, (Ed.)., "Transforming the school counseling profession." (pp. 129–153). Boston: Pearson.
• MacDonald, G., & Sink, C. A. (1999). A qualitative developmental analysis of comprehensive guidance program in schools in the United States. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 27, 415-430.
• Martin, I., Carey, J., & DeCoster, K. (2009). A national study of the current status of state school counseling models. Professional School Counseling, 12, 378-386.
• Nova Scotia Department of Education. (2002). Comprehensive guidance and counselling program. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Author.
• Paisley, P. O. (2001). Maintaining and enhancing the developmental focus in school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 4, 271-277.
• Perusse, R., & Goodnough, G. D. (2001). A comparison of existing school counselor program content with the Education Trust initiatives. Counselor Education and Supervision, 41, 100-110.
• Perusse, R., Goodnough, G. E., & Noel, C. J. (2001). Use of the national standards for school counseling programs in preparing school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 5, 49-56.
• Schellenberg, R. (2007). Standards blending: Aligning school counseling programs with school academic achievement missions. "Virginia Counselors Journal, 29," 13-20.
• Sink, C. A., & Stroh, H. R. (2003). Raising achievement test scores of early elementary school students through comprehensive school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 6, 352-364.
• Sink, C. A., Akos, P., Turnbull, R. J., & Mvududu, N. (2008). An investigation of comprehensive school counseling programs and academic achievement in Washington State middle schools. Professional School Counseling, 12, 43-53.
• Stevens, H., & Wilkerson, K. (2010). The developmental assets and ASCA's National Standards: A crosswalk review. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 227-233.
• Promoting Latino student achievement and development through the ASCA National Model. Professional School Counseling, 10, 464-474.
• Walsh, M. E., Barrett, J. G., DePaul, J. (2007). Day-to-day activities of school counselors: Alignment with new directions in the field and the ASCA National Model. Professional School Counseling, 10, 370-378.

Bilingual School Counseling

• Bruhn, R. A., Irby, B. J., Lou, M., Thweatt, W. T. III, & Lara-Alecio, R. (2005). A model for training bilingual school counselors. In J. Tinajero and V. Gonzales (Eds.), Review of research and practice, (pp. 145–161). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Smith-Adcock, S., Daniels, M. H., Lee, S. M., Villalba, J. A., & Indelicato, N. A. (2006). Culturally responsive school counseling for Hispanic/Latino students and families: The need for bilingual school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 10, 92-101.

Career and College Access Counseling, Closing Opportunity & Attainment Gaps

• Bryan, J., Holcomb-McCoy, C., Moore-Thomas, C, and Day-Vines, N. L. (2009). Who sees the school counselor for college information? A national study. Professional School Counseling, 12, 280-291.
• Bryan, J., Moore-Thomas, C., Day-Vines, N. L., & Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2011). School counselors as social capital: The effects of high school college counseling on college application rates. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89, 190-199.
• Chang, D. H. F. (2002). The past, present, and future of career counseling in Taiwan. Career Development Quarterly, 50, 218-225.
• Chen-Hayes, S. F., Saud Maxwell, K., & Bailey, D. F. (2009). Equity-based school counseling: Ensuring career and college readiness for every student. DVD. Hanover, MA: Microtraining Associates.
• The College Board. (2008). Inspiration & innovation: Ten effective counseling practices from the College Board's Inspiration Award schools. Washington, D.C.: Author.
• The College Board. (2010). The college counseling sourcebook: Advice and strategies from experienced school counselors. (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
• Gibbons, M. M., Borders, L. D., Wiles, M. E., Stephan, J. B., & Davis, P. E. (2006). Career and college planning needs of ninth graders--as reported by ninth graders. Professional School Counseling, 10, 168-178.
• Gibbons, M. M., & Borders, L. D. (2010). A measure of college-going self-efficacy for middle school students. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 234-243.
• Lee, S. M., Daniels, M. H., Puig, A., Newgent, R. A., & Nam, S. K. (2008). A data-based model to predict postsecondary educational attainment of low-socioeconomic-status students. Professional School Counseling, 11, 306-316.
• Marisco, M., & Getch, Y. Q. (2009). Transitioning Hispanic seniors from high school to college. Professional School Counseling, 12, 458-462.
• Muhammad, C. G. (2008). African American student and college choice: A consideration of the role of school counselors. NASSP Bulletin, 92, 81-94.
• Ohrt, J. H., Lambie, G. W., & Ieva, K. P. (2009). Supporting Latino and African-American students in Advanced Placement courses: A school counseling program's approach. Professional School Counseling, 13," 59-63.
• Perna, L., Rowan-Kenyon, H., Thomas, S., Bell, A., Anderson, R., & Li, C. (2008). The role of college counseling in shaping college opportunity: Variations across high schools. Review of Higher Education, 31, 131-159.
• Perna, L, & Titus, M. A. (2005). The relationship between parental involvement as social capital and college enrollment: An examination of racial/ethnic group differences. Journal of Higher Education, 76, 485-518.
• Sciarra, D. T., & Ambrosino, K. E. (2011). Post-secondary expectations and educational attainment. Professional School Counseling, 14, 231-241.
• Sciarra, D. T., & Whitson, M. L. (2007). Predictive factors in postsecondary educational attainment among Latinos. Professional School Counseling, 10, 307-316.
• Trusty, J., & Niles, S. G. (2004). Realized potential or lost talent: High school variables and bachelor's degree completion. Career Development Quarterly, 53, 2-15.
• Trusty, J., & Niles, S. G. (2003). High-school math courses and completion of the bachelor's degree. Professional School Counseling, 7, 99-107.

Counseling Theories in Schools

• Lemberger, M. E. & Nash, E. R. (2008). School counselors and the influence of Adler: Individual psychology since the advent of the ASCA National Model. Journal of Individual Psychology, 64, 386-402.
• Lemberger, M. E. (2010). Advocating student-within-environment: A humanistic theory for school counseling. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 49, 131-146.
• Perusse, R., and Goodnough, G. E., (Eds.). (2004). Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage.
• Shen, Y., & Herr, E. L. (2003). Perceptions of play therapy in Taiwan: The voices of school counselors and school counselor educators. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 25, 27-41.
• Winslade, J. M., & Monk G. D. (2007). Narrative counseling in schools: Powerful and brief (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Cultural Competence, Ethnic/Racial Identity Development in School Counseling

• Buser, J. K. (2010). American Indian adolescents and disordered eating. Professional School Counseling, 14, 146-155.
• Day-Vines, N. L., & Day-Hairston, B. O. (2005). Culturally congruent strategies for addressing the behavioral needs of urban African-American male adolescents. Professional School Counseling, 8, 236-243.
• Day-Vines, N., Patton, J., & Baytops, J. (2003). African American adolescents: The impact of race and middle class status on the counseling process. Professional School Counseling, 7, 40-51.
• Holcomb-McCoy, C. & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2011). Culturally competent school counselors: Affirming diversity by challenging oppression. In B. T. Erford, (Ed). Transforming the school counseling profession. (3rd ed). (pp. 90–109). Boston: Pearson.
• Malott, K. M., Alessandria, K. P., Kirkpatrick, M., & Carandang, J. (2009). Ethnic labeling in Mexican-origin youth: A qualitative assessment. Professional School Counseling, 12, 352-364.
• Portman, T. A. A. (2009). Faces of the future: School counselors as cultural mediators. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87, 21-27.
• Shen, Y.-J., & Lowing, R. J. (2007). School counselors' self-perceived Asian American counseling competence. Professional School Counseling, 11, 69-71.
• Shin, R. Q., Daly, B. P., & Vera, E. M. (2007). The relationships of peer norms, ethnic identity, and peer support to school engagement in urban youth. Professional School Counseling, 10, 379-388.
• Trusty, J. (2002). African Americans' educational expectations: Longitudinal causal models for women and men. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80, 332-345.
• Turner, S. L., Conkel, J. L., Reich, A. N., Trotter, M. J., & Slewart, J. J. Social skills efficacy and proactivity among Native American adolescents. Professional School Counseling, 10, 189-194
• Wyatt, S. (2009). The brotherhood: Empowering adolescent African-American males toward excellence. Professional School Counseling, 12, 463-470.

Curriculum and Lesson Plans for School Counseling Programs

• Perusse, R., & Goodnough, G. E., (Eds.). (2004). Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Effective School Counseling Practices and Evaluation

• Camizzi, E., Clark, M. A., Yacco, S., & Goodman, W. (2009). Becoming 'difference makers': School-university collaboration to create, implement, and evaluate data-driven counseling interventions. Professional School Counseling, 12, 471-479.
• Dimmitt, C. (2009). Why evaluation matters: Determining effective school counseling practices. Professional School Counseling, 12, 395-399.
• Scarborough, J. L., & Culbreth, J. R. (2008). Examining discrepancies between actual and preferred practice of school counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86, 446-459.
• Scarborough, J. L. (2005). The school counselor activity rating scale: An instrument for gathering process data. Professional School Counseling, 8, 274-283.
• Studer, J. R., Oberman, A. H., & Womack, R. H. (2006). Producing evidence to show counseling effectiveness in schools. Professional School Counseling, 9, 385-391.
• Whiston, S. C., & Aricak, T. (2008). Development and initial investigation of the School Counseling Program Evaluation Scale. Professional School Counseling, 11, 253-261.

Ethics and Law in School Counseling

• Stone, C. B., & Zirkel, P. A. (2010). School counselor advocacy: When law and ethics may collide. "Professional School Counseling, 13," 244-247.
• Stone, C. B. (2005). School counseling principles: Ethics and law. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.

Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender School Counseling

• Bidell, M. P. (2005). The Sexual Orientation Counselor Competency Scale: Assessing attitudes, skills, and knowledge of counselors working with lesbian/gay/bisexual clients. Counselor Education and Supervision, 44, 267–279.
• Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2001). Counseling and advocacy with transgendered and gender-variant persons in schools and families. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education, and Development, 40, 34-48.
• Chen-Hayes, S. F., & Haley-Banez, L. (2000). Lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgendered counseling in schools and families (1, 2). DVDs. Hanover, MA: Microtraining Associates.
• Depaul, J., Walsh, M., E., & Dam, U. C. (2009). The role of school counselors in addressing sexual orientation in schools. Professional School Counseling, 12, 300-308.
• Goodrich, K. M., & Luke, M. (2009). LGBTQ responsive school counseling. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 3, 113-127.
• McFarland, W. P. (2001). The legal duty to protect gay and lesbian students from violence in school. Professional School Counseling, 4, 171-179.
• Satcher, J., & Leggett, M. (2007). Homonegativity among professional school counselors: An exploratory study. Professional School Counseling, 11, 10-16.
• Satcher, J., & Leggett, M. (2005). What to say when your student may be gay? A primer for school counselors. Alabama Counseling Association Journal, 31, 44-52.
• Smith, S. D., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2004). Leadership and advocacy strategies for lesbian, bisexual, gay, transgendered, and questioning (LBGTQ) students: Academic, career, and interpersonal success. In R. Perusse and G. E. Goodnough (Eds.), Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors (pp. 187-221). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage.
• Varjas, K., Graybill, E., Mahan, W., Dew, B., Marshall, M., & Singh, A. (2007). Urban service providers' perspectives on school responses to gay, lesbian, and questioning students: An exploratory study. Professional School Counseling, 11, 113-119.
• Whitman, J. S., Horn, S. S., & Boyd, C. J. (2007). Activism in the schools: Providing LGBTQ affirmative training to school counselors. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 11, 143-154.

Group Counseling

• Brigman, G., & Early, B. (2001). Group counseling for school counselors: A practical guide. Portland, ME: Walch.
• Paisley, P., & Milsom, A. (2007). Group work as an essential contribution to transforming school counseling. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 32, 9-17.
• Steen, S., Bauman, S., & Smith, J. (2007). Professional school counselors and the practice of group work. Professional School Counseling, 11, 72-80.
• Steen, S., & Kaffenberger, C. J. (2007). Integrating academic interventions into small group counseling in elementary school. "Professional School Counseling, 10," 516-519.

Outcome Research

• Brooks-McNamara, V., & Torres, D. (2008). The reflective school counselor's guide to practitioner research: Skills and strategies for successful inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Bryan, J. A., Day-Vines, N. L., Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Moore-Thomas, C. (2010). Using national education longitudinal data sets in school counseling research. Counselor Education and Supervision, 49, 266-279.
• Clark, M. A., Thompson, P., & Vialle, W. (2008). Examining the gender gap in educational outcomes in public education: Involving pre-service school counsellors and teachers in cross-cultural and interdisciplinary research. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 30, 52-66.
• Foster, L. H., Watson, T. S., Meeks, C., & Young, J. S. (2002). Single-subject research design for school counselors: Becoming an applied researcher. Professional School Counseling, 6, 146-159.
• Kaffenberger, C., & Davis, T. (2009). Introduction to special issue: A call for practitioner research. Professional School Counseling, 12, 392-394.
• Rowell, L. L. (2006). Action research and school counseling: Closing the gap between research and practice. Professional School Counseling, 9, 376-384.
• Whiston, S. C., Tai, W. L., Rahardja, D., & Eder, K. (2011). School counseling outcome: A meta-analytic examination of interventions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89, 37-55.
• Whiston, S. C., & Sexton, T. L. (1998). A review of school counseling outcome research: Implications for practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 412-426.