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| − | The '''social sciences''' are the fields of [[Scholarly method|scholarship]] that study society.<ref name="Kuper1985" /> "Social science" is commonly used as an [[umbrella term]] to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the [[natural sciences]]. These include: [[anthropology]], [[archaeology]], [[business administration]], [[criminology]], [[development studies]], [[economics]], [[geography]], [[history]], [[law]], [[linguistics]], [[political science]], [[sociology]], [[international relations]], [[communication]], [[vocationomics]] and, in some contexts, [[psychology]].<ref name="issues">Verheggen et al. 1999. "From shared representations to consensually coordinated actions", in "Theoretical Issues in Psychology", John Morrs et al., ed., International Society for Theoretical Psychology</ref><ref>http://www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~garai/Vygotskyboom.htm L. Garai and M. Kocski: Another crisis in the psychology: A possible motive for the Vygotsky-boom. Journal of Russian and East-European Psychology. 1995. 33:1. 82-94.</ref>
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| − | The term may be used, however, in the specific context of referring to the original ''science of society'' established in 19th century [[sociology]]. [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Karl Marx]] and [[Max Weber]] are typically cited as the principal architects of modern social science by this definition.<ref>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/ Max Weber - Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy</ref> [[Positivism|Positivist]] social scientists use methods resembling those of the [[natural sciences]] as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter [[History_of_science#Modern_science|modern sense]]. [[Antipositivism|Interpretivist]] social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader [[History_of_science#Early_cultures|classical sense]]. In modern academic practice researchers are often [[Eclecticism|eclectic]], using multiple [[Social research|methodologies]] (for instance, by combining the [[quantitative research|quantitative]] and [[qualitative research|qualitative]] techniques). The term "[[social research]]" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
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| − | == Social science history ==
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| − | The [[history of the social sciences]] begins in the roots of ancient philosophy. In [[Ancient history]], there was no difference between mathematics and the study of history, poetry or politics. This unity of science as descriptive remains and deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework.
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| − | The [[Age of Enlightenment]] saw a revolution within [[natural philosophy]], changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". In some quarters, the accelerating trend of mathematical studies presumed a reality independent of the observer and worked by its own rules. Social sciences came forth from the [[moral philosophy]] of the time and was influenced by the [[Age of Revolution]]s, such as the [[Industrial revolution]] and the [[French revolution]].<ref name="Kuper1985" /> The ''social sciences'' developed from the [[science]]s ([[experimental science|experimental]] and [[applied science|applied]]), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the [[social improvement]] of a [[community|group of interacting entities]].<ref name="SocialColumbian1897">"Social sciences", Columbian cyclopedia. (1897). Buffalo: Garretson, Cox & Company. Page 227.</ref><ref name="Peck1897">Peck, H. T., Peabody, S. H., & Richardson, C. F. (1897). The International cyclopedia, A compendium of human knowledge. Rev. with large additions. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.</ref>
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| − | The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in various grand [[encyclopedia]] of [[Diderot]], with articles from [[Rousseau]] and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw "''social science''" first used as a distinct conceptual field.<ref>''An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth'' (1824) by [[William Thompson (philosopher)|William Thompson]] (1775–1833)</ref> Social science was influenced by [[positivism]],<ref name="Kuper1985" /> focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] speculation was avoided. [[Auguste Comte]] used the term "''science social''" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of [[Charles Fourier]]; Comte also referred to the field as ''social physics''.<ref name="Kuper1985" /><ref>According to Comte, the ''social physics'' field was similar to that of [[natural sciences]].</ref>
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| − | Following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the Social Sciences, influenced by Comte or other fields.<ref name="Kuper1985" /> One route that was taken was the rise of [[social research]]. Large [[statistical survey]]s were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by [[Émile Durkheim]], studying "social facts", and [[Vilfredo Pareto]], opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which the [[social phenomena]] was identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as [[Max Weber]]. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a [[hard science]]. The last path was the [[correlation]] of knowledge and [[social value]]s; the [[antipositivism]] and [[verstehen]] sociology of [[Max Weber]] firmly demanded on this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.
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| − | Around the turn of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology.<ref>Vessuri, Hebe. (2000). "Ethical Challenges for the Social Sciences on the Threshold of the 21st Century." Current Sociology 50, no. 1 (January): 135-150. [http://www.web-miner.com/socsciethics.htm], Social Science Ethics: A Bibliography, Sharon Stoerger MLS, MBA</ref> Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of [[medicine]], [[sociobiology]], [[neuropsychology]], [[bioeconomics]] and the [[history of science|history]] and [[sociology of science]]. Increasingly, [[quantitative research]] and [[qualitative methods]] are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently.
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| − | In the contemporary period, [[Karl Popper]] and [[Talcott Parsons]] influenced the furtherance of the social sciences.<ref name="Kuper1985" /> Researchers continues to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories which, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see [[consilience]]. At present though, the various realms of social science progress in a myriad of ways, increasing the overall knowledge of society. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometime distinct in approach toward, the field.<ref name="Kuper1985" />
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| − | The term "social science" may refer either to the specific ''sciences of society'' established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of [[noble science]] and [[arts]]. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: [[jurisprudence]] and amendment of the [[law]], [[education]], [[health]], [[economy]] and [[trade]], and [[art]].<ref name="SocialColumbian1897" />
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| − | ==Branches of social science==
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| − | {| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:222px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
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| − | <center>
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| − | ;Social Science areas
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| − | </center>
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| − | The following are problem areas and discipline branches within the social sciences.<ref name="Kuper1985">Kuper, A., & Kuper, J. (1985).</ref>
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| − | * [[Anthropology]]
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| − | * [[Business studies]]
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| − | * [[Communication studies]]
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| − | * [[Criminology]]
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| − | * [[Demography]]
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| − | * [[Development studies]]
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| − | * [[Economics]]
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| − | * [[Education]]
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| − | * [[Geography]]
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| − | * [[History]]
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| − | * [[Industrial relations]]
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| − | * [[Law]]
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| − | * [[Linguistics]]
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| − | * [[Media studies]]
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| − | * [[Methodology]]
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| − | * [[Philosophy]]
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| − | * [[Political science]]
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| − | * [[Psychology]]
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| − | * [[Public administration]]
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| − | * [[Sociology]]
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| − | * [[Legal Management]]
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| − | * [[Paralegal studies]]
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| − | * [[International studies]]
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| − | * [[Library Science]]
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| − | * [[Information Science]]
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| − | The Social Science disciplines are branches of knowledge which are taught and researched at the college or university level. Social Science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned Social Science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social Science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.
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| − | === Anthropology ===
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| − | [[Anthropology]] is the holistic "science of man," - a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the Social Sciences, [[Humanities]], and [[Human biology|Human Biology]]. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural ''sciences'' seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The ''humanities'' generally study local traditions, through their [[history]], [[literature]], [[music]], and [[art]]s, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. The ''social sciences'' have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences.
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| − | The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.<ref>Wallerstein, Immanuel. (2003) "Anthropology, sociology, and other dubious disciplines." ''Current Anthropology'' 44:453-466.
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| − | </ref> Within the United States, Anthropology is divided into four sub-fields:[[Archaeology]], [[Physical Anthropology|Physical]] or [[Physical Anthropology|Biological Anthropology]], [[Anthropological Linguistics]], and [[Cultural Anthropology]]. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for "human being" or "person." [[Eric Wolf]] described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."
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| − | The goal of anthropology is to provide a [[Holism|holistic]] account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior."<ref>Lowie, Robert. ''Primitive Religion''. Routledge and Sons. 1924; Tylor,Edward. 1920 [1871]. Primitive Culture. New York: J.P. Putnam’s Sons.</ref> Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of [[subsistence]] or [[Modes of production|production]], such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (''ethnos'') remaining of great interest within anthropology.
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| − | The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.<ref>Nanda, Serena and Richard Warms. ''Culture Counts.'' Wadsworth. 2008. Chapter One</ref> In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<ref>Rosaldo, Renato. ''Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis''. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. ''The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007''butt butt goose and some chicken grease , after that you take it and put it through your armpits and something</ref>
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| − | === Economics ===
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| − | [[Economics]] is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct= economics - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref> The word "economics" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|οἶκος}} [''oikos''], "family, household, estate," and νόμος [''nomos''], "custom, law," and hence means "household management" or "management of the state." An [[economist]] is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a university [[academic degree|degree]] in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by [[Lionel Robbins]] in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses." Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no [[economic problem]]. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behaviour."
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| − | Economics has two broad branches: [[microeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a [[household]] or firm, and [[macroeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from [[normative economics]], which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve [[Subjectivity|subjective]] value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the [[physiocrats|physiocratic school]]. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as [[public choice theory|politics]], [[law]], [[Experimental economics|psychology]], [[Economic history|history]], [[religion]], [[marriage]] and family life, and other social interactions.
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| − | This paradigm crucially assumes (1) that resources are [[scarcity|scarce]] because they are not sufficient to satisfy all wants, and (2) that "economic value" is willingness to pay as revealed for instance by market (arms' length) transactions. Rival [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] schools of thought, such as [[institutional economics]], [[green economics]], [[Marxist economics]], and [[economic sociology]], make other grounding assumptions. For example, Marxist economics assumes that economics primarily deals with the exchange of value, and that labor (human effort) is the source of all value.
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| − | The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as [[economic imperialism (economics)|economic imperialism]].<ref name="Imperialism">[[Edward Lazear|Lazear, Edward P.]] (2000|. "Economic Imperialism," ''Quarterly Journal Economics'', 115(1)|, p [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2586936 p. 99]-146. [http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:fD0VzttXRUMJ:flash.lakeheadu.ca/~kyu/E5111/Lazear2000.pdf+ Cached copy.] [http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:lK_6EHxTuCoJ:faculty-gsb.stanford.edu/lazear/personal/PDFs/economic%2520imperialism.pdf+ Pre-publication copy](larger print.)</ref><ref>[[Gary Becker|Becker, Gary S.]] (1976). ''The Economic Approach to Human Behavior''. [http://books.google.com/books?id=iwEOFKSKbMgC&dq=%22The+Economic+Approach+to+Human+Behavior%22+Introduction&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 Links] to arrow-page viewable chapter. University of Chicago Press.</ref>
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| − | === Education ===
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| − | Education [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], positive [[judgement]] and well-developed [[wisdom]]. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin ''educare'', or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[neuroscience]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]].<ref>[http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm An overview of education]</ref>
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| − | The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing [[music]] or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily [[personal life|life]] provide far more instruction than does formal [[school]]ing (thus [[Mark Twain]]'s admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). [[Family]] members may have a profound educational effect — often more profound than they realize — though family teaching may function very informally.
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| − | === Geography ===
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| − | Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: [[human geography]] and [[physical geography]]. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the [[climate]], [[vegetation]] & life, [[soil]], [[water]] and [[landforms]] are produced and interact.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is geography? |work=AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences |publisher=Association of American Geographers |url=http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html |accessdate=October 9, 2006 }} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is [[environmental geography]]. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan">{{cite web |last=Hayes-Bohanan |first=James |title=What is Environmental Geography, Anyway? |url=http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/environmentalgeography.htm |accessdate=October 9, 2006 }}</ref>
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| − | Geographers attempt to understand the [[earth]] in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of [[mapmaking]] and finding ways to precisely [[Map projection|project]] the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. [[Historical geography]] is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.
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| − | Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to [[Geographic Information Science|GISc]], that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The fields of [[Urban Planning]], [[Regional Science]], and [[Planetology]] are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as [[Geographic Information Systems|GIS]], [[remote sensing]], [[aerial photography]], [[statistics]], and [[global positioning systems]] (GPS).
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| − | The field of geography is generally split into two distinct branches: physical and human. ''[[Physical geography]]'' examines phenomena related to [[Climatology|climate]], [[Oceanography|oceans]], [[Pedology (soil study)|soils]], and the [[Geodesy|measurement of earth]]. ''[[Human geography]]'' focuses on fields as diverse as [[Cultural geography]], [[Transportation geography|transportation]], [[Health geography|health]], [[Military geography|military operations]], and [[Urban geography|cities]]. Other [[Geography#Branches|branches of geography]] include [[Social geography]], [[regional geography]], [[geomatics]], and [[environmental geography]].
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| − | === History ===
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| − | History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories, such as the [[Turner Thesis]] about the American frontier.
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| − | History has a base in both the social sciences and the humanities. In the [[United States]] the [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] includes history in its definition of a [[Humanities]] (as it does for applied Linguistics).<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html Overview]</ref> However the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] classifies History as a Social science.<ref>[http://books.nap.edu/readingroom/books/researchdoc/summary.html Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change]</ref> The ''[[historical method]]'' comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use [[primary source]]s and other evidence to research and then to [[historiography|write history]]. The Social Science History Association, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in [[social history]].<ref>See [http://www.ssha.org/ the SSHA website]</ref>
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| − | === Law ===
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| − | Law in common parlance, means a rule which (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Crimes Against Humanity|first=Geoffrey| last=Robertson| authorlink=Geoffrey Robertson|year=2006| publisher=Penguin|pages=90| isbn=9780141024639}}</ref> The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",<ref name="hhc">{{cite book |last=Hart |first=H.L.A. |authorlink=H.L.A. Hart |title=[[The Concept of Law]] |year=1961 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-876122-8}}</ref> as an "interpretive concept"<ref name="rdl">{{cite book |last=Dworkin |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Dworkin |title=Law's Empire |year=1986 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674518365}}</ref> to achieve justice, as an "authority"<ref name="jra">{{cite book |last=Raz |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph Raz |title=The Authority of Law |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0199562687 }}</ref> to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".<ref name="jap">{{cite book |last=Austin |first=John |authorlink=John Austin (legal philosopher) |title=The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined |year=1831 |publisher= |location= |isbn= }}</ref> However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social sciences and humanity. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about [[contract]], [[tort]], [[property law]], [[labour law]], [[company law]] and many more can have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun ''law'' derives from the late [[Old English language|Old English]] ''lagu'', meaning something laid down or fixed<ref>see [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Etymonline Dictionary]</ref> and the adjective ''legal'' comes from the Latin word ''lex''.<ref>see [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal Mirriam-Webster's Dictionary]</ref>
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| − | === Linguistics ===
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| − | Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as [[syntax]] (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), [[semantics]] (the study of meaning), [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the study of the structure of words), [[phonetics]] (the study of speech sounds) and [[phonology]] (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like [[evolutionary linguistics]] (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and [[psycholinguistics]] (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.
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| − | The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly [[wikt:synchronic|synchronic]] perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of [[Noam Chomsky]]—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, [[Creole language|creole]] studies, [[discourse analysis]], social interactional linguistics, and [[sociolinguistics]] explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and [[statistics]] in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like [[acoustic phonetics]] and [[neurolinguistics]], draw on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Ferdinand Saussure]] is considered the father of modern linguistics.
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| − | === Political science ===
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| − | [[Political science]] is an [[academia|academic]] and [[research]] discipline that deals with the theory and practice of [[politics]] and the description and analysis of [[political system]]s and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include [[positive political economy]], [[political philosophy|political theory and philosophy]], [[civics]] and [[comparative politics]], theory of [[direct democracy]], apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, [[international relations]], [[foreign policy]], [[international law]], politics, [[public administration]], administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and [[Policy|public policy]]. Political science also studies [[power in international relations]] and the theory of [[Great powers]] and [[Superpower]]s.
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| − | Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the scientific method [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1403934223]. That is the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include [[rational choice]], classical political philosophy, [[Interpretivism (social science)|interpretivism]], [[structuralism]], and [[behavioralism]], [[Philosophical realism|realism]], pluralism, and [[institutionalism]]. Political science, as one of the [[social science]]s, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include [[sample survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]]/[[econometrics]], [[case studies]], [[experiment]]s, and model building. [[Herbert Baxter Adams]] is credited with coining the phrase "political science" while teaching history at [[Johns Hopkins University]].
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| − | ==== Public administration ====
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| − | One of the main branches of political science, '''public administration''' can be broadly described as the development, implementation and study of branches of government [[policy]]. The pursuit of the public good by enhancing [[civil society]] and [[social justice]] is the ultimate goal of the field. Though public administration has historically referred to as government management, it increasingly encompasses [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs) that also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the betterment of humanity.
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| − | Differentiating public administration from business administration, a closely related field, has become a popular method for defining the discipline by contrasting the two. First, the goals of public administration are more closely related to those often cited as goals of the American founders and democratic people in general.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}{{dubious|date=January 2011}} That is, public employees work to improve equality, justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness, and, at times, for profit.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}} These values help to both differentiate the field from business administration, primarily concerned with profit, and define the discipline. Second, public administration is a relatively new, multidisciplinary field. [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s ''The Study of Administration'' is frequently cited as the seminal work. Wilson advocated a more professional operation of public officials' daily activities. Further, the future president identified the necessity in the United States of a separation between party politics and good [[bureaucracy]], which has also been a lasting theme.
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| − | The multidisciplinary nature of public administration is related to a third defining feature: administrative duties. Public administrators work in public agencies, at all levels of government, and perform a wide range of tasks. Public administrators collect and analyze data (statistics), monitor fiscal operations (budgets, accounts, and cash flow), organize large events and meetings, draft legislation, develop policy, and frequently execute legally mandated, government activities. Regarding this final facet, public administrators find themselves serving as parole officers, secretaries, note takers, paperwork processors, record keepers, notaries of the public, cashiers, and managers. Indeed, the discipline couples well with many vocational fields such as information technology, finance, law, and engineering. When it comes to the delivery and evaluation of public services, a public administrator is undoubtedly involved.
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| − | === Psychology ===
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| − | [[Psychology]] is an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] field involving the study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]].
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| − | Psychology differs from [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt [[behaviour]] of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behavior. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.
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| − | Many people associate Psychology with Clinical Psychology which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, Psychology has myriad specialties including: Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, [[Mathematical psychology]], Neuropsychology, and Quantitative Analysis of Behaviour to name only a few. The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] ψυχή, ''[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'' ("soul", "mind") and ''[[-logy|logy]]'', study).
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| − | Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical [[medicine]]), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely. In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: B.Psy. indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, B.Sc. indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a B.A. underlines a majority of social science credits.
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| − | === Sociology ===
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| − | [[Sociology]] is the systematic study of society and human [[social action]]. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-ology" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the stem "soci-" which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general.
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| − | Sociology was originally established by [[Auguste Comte]] (1798–1857) in 1838.<ref>''A Dictionary of Sociology,'' Article: Comte, Auguste</ref> Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological [[positivism]], an epistemological approach outlined in ''The Course in Positive Philosophy'' [1830–1842] and ''[[A General View of Positivism]]'' (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, [[Émile Durkheim]] (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical [[social research]]. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the [[University of Bordeaux]] in 1895, publishing his ''[[Rules of the Sociological Method]]''. In 1896, he established the journal ''[[Année Sociologique|L'Année Sociologique]]''. Durkheim's seminal monograph, ''[[Suicide (book)|Suicide]]'' (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] populations, distinguished sociological analysis from [[psychology]] or [[philosophy]].<ref>Gianfranco Poggi (2000). ''Durkheim.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter 1.</ref>
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| − | [[Karl Marx]] rejected Comtean positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a ''science of society'' based on [[historical materialism]], becoming recognised as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. At the turn of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including [[Max Weber]] and [[Georg Simmel]], developed sociological [[antipositivism]]. The field may be broadly recognised as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian [[positivism]] and [[structural functionalism]]; Marxist [[historical materialism]] and [[conflict theory]]; Weberian [[antipositivism]] and [[verstehen]] analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with [[pragmatism]] and [[social psychology]]. In the 1920s, the [[Chicago school]] developed [[symbolic interactionism]]. Meanwhile in the 1930s, the [[Frankfurt School]] pioneered the idea of [[critical theory]], an interdisciplinary form of [[Marxist sociology]] drawing upon thinkers as diverse as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after [[World War II]], influencing [[literary criticism]] and the [[Birmingham School]] establishment of [[cultural studies]].
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| − | Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of [[modernity]], such as [[industrialization]], [[urbanization]], [[secularization]], and a perceived process of enveloping [[Rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]].<ref>Habermas, Jurgen, ''The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Modernity's Consciousness of Time'', Polity Press (1985), paperback, ISBN 0-7456-0830-2, p2</ref> Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. The field generally concerns the [[social rule]]s and processes that bind and separate people not only as [[individual]]s, but as members of [[Voluntary association|associations]], [[Group (sociology)|groups]], [[Community|communities]] and [[social institution|institutions]], and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short [[social contact|contacts]] between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of [[globalization|global social processes]]. In the terms of [[Sociology|sociologists]] [[Peter L. Berger]] and [[Thomas Luckmann]], social scientists seek an understanding of the ''[[Social Construction of Reality]]''. Most sociologists work in one or more [[Subfields of sociology|subfields]]. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, [[social stratification]] studies inequality and class structure; [[demography]] studies changes in a population size or type; [[criminology]] examines criminal behavior and deviance; and [[political sociology]] studies the interaction between society and state.
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| − | Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.<ref name="Giddens Intro">Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum, Richard. 2007. ''Introduction to Sociology. Sixth Edition.'' New York: W.W. Norton and Company. Chapter 1.</ref> Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, drawing upon either empirical techniques or [[critical theory]]. Common modern methods include [[case studies]], [[historiography|historical research]], [[interviewing]], [[participant observation]], [[social network analysis]], [[statistical survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]], and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating [[Policy|public policy]], through subdisciplinary areas such as [[evaluation research]], methodological assessment, and [[public sociology]].
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| − | New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as [[community studies]], [[computational sociology]], [[environmental sociology]], [[network analysis]], [[actor-network theory]] and a growing list, many of which are [[List of academic disciplines|cross-disciplinary]] in nature.
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| − | == Further fields ==
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| − | Additional Social Science disciplines and fields of study include:
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| − | {{colbegin}}
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| − | *[[Archaeology]] is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, biofacts, and landscapes.
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| − | *[[Area studies]] are interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions.
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| − | *[[Behavioral science]] is a term that encompasses all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world.
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| − | *[[Communication studies]] is an academic field that deals with processes of communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols over distances in space and time.
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| − | *[[Demography]] is the statistical study of all populations.
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| − | *[[Development studies]] a multidisciplinary branch of social science which addresses issues of concern to developing countries.
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| − | *[[Environmental studies]] integrate social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment.
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| − | *[[Information science]] is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
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| − | *''International studies'' covers both [[International relations]] (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and [[International education]] (the comprehensive approach that intentionally prepares people to be active and engaged participants in an interconnected world).
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| − | *[[Journalism]] is the craft of conveying news, descriptive material and comment via a widening spectrum of media.
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| − | *[[Legal management]] is a social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of State and Legal elements.
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| − | *[[Library science]] is an interdisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information.
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| − | *[[Management]] in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives.
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| − | *[[Political economy]] is the study of production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government.
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| − | {{colend}}
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| − | == Methodology and theory ==
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| − | ===Social research===
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| − | The origin of the [[Statistical survey|survey]] can be traced back at least early as the [[Domesday Book]] in 1086,<ref>A. H. Halsey(2004),''A history of sociology in Britain: science, literature, and society'',p.34</ref><ref>Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell(1970),''A new dictionary of sociology'',p.201</ref> whilst some scholars pinpoint the origin of [[demography]] to 1663 with the publication of [[John Graunt]]'s ''Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality''.<ref>Willcox, Walter (1938) [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400906 ''The Founder of Statistics''.]</ref> Social research began most intentionally, however, with the [[positivist]] [[philosophy of science]] in the 19th century.
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| − | In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines which share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from [[census]] survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agents' social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as [[political science]], [[media studies]], and [[market research]].
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| − | Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools:
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| − | * [[Quantitative method|Quantitative designs]] approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims.
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| − | * [[Qualitative research|Qualitative designs]] emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality
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| − | Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Social science is distinguished from natural science to the extent that workable abstract or theoretical concepts (ie. "[[social class]]") always need to be constructed in the abstract. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or [[statistical hypothesis testing]]. A [[mathematical model]] uses [[mathematics|mathematical]] language to describe a [[system]]. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defined a ''mathematical model'' as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an existing [[system]] (or a system to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form'.<ref>Eykhoff, Pieter ''System Identification: Parameter and State Estimation'', Wiley & Sons, (1974). ISBN 0-471-24980-7</ref> Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to [[dynamical systems]], [[statistical model]]s, [[differential equations]], or [[Game theory|game theoretic models]].
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| − | These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The [[system]] is a set of interacting or interdependent [[entities]], real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an ''integrated whole'' can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. [[Dynamical system]] modeled as a [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[formalization]] has fixed "rule" which describes the [[time]] dependence of a point's position in its [[ambient space]]. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The ''evolution rule'' of the dynamical system is a [[function (mathematics)|fixed rule]] that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is [[Deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]]: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.
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| − | ===Theory===
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| − | Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
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| − | {{colbegin}}
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| − | * [[Critical theory]] is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines.
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| − | * [[Dialectical materialism]] is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the Materialism of Feuerbach.
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| − | * [[Feminist theory]] is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse, it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
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| − | * [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist theories]], such as [[Proletarian revolution|revolutionary theory]] and [[Class conflict|class theory]], cover work in philosophy which is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or which is written by Marxists.
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| − | * [[Phronetic social science]] is an approach to the study of social – including political and economic – phenomena based on a contemporary interpretation of the classical Greek concept phronesis, variously translated as practical judgment, common sense, or prudence.
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| − | * [[Post-colonialism|Post-colonial theory]] are reactions to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
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| − | * [[Postmodernism]] refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
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| − | * [[Rational choice theory]] is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
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| − | * [[Social constructionism]] is knowledge that consider how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
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| − | * [[Structuralism]] is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.
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| − | * [[Structural functionalism]] is a sociological paradigm which addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.
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| − | Other fringe social scientists delve in alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
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| − | * [[Anti-intellectualism|Intellectual critical-ism]] describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits.
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| − | * [[Antiscience|Scientific criticalism]] is a position critical of science and the scientific method.
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| − | * [[Irrationalism|Rational criticalism]] is a cultural reaction against positivism in the early 20th century.
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| − | == Education and degrees ==
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| − | Most universities offer degrees in social science fields.<ref>Peterson's (Firm : 2006- ). (2007). Peterson's graduate programs in the humanities, arts, & social sciences, 2007. Lawrenceville, NJ: Peterson's.</ref> The [[Bachelor of Social Science]] is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular. It is often more flexible and in-depth than other degrees which include social science subjects.<ref>The [[Bachelor of Social Science]] can be studied at the [[University of Adelaide]], [[University of Waikato]] ([[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], [[New Zealand]]), [[University of Sydney]] ([[Sydney]], [[Australia]]), [[University of New South Wales]] ([[Sydney]]), [[University of Hong Kong]] ([[Hong Kong]], [[China]]), [[University of Manchester]] ([[Manchester]], [[England]]), [[Lincoln University, New Zealand|Lincoln University]] ([[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]]), [[National University of Malaysia]] ([[Bangi]], [[Malaysia]]), and [[University of Queensland]] ([[Brisbane]], [[Australia]]).</ref>
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| − | In the United States, a university may offer a student who studies a social sciences field a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree, particularly if the field is within one of the traditional [[liberal arts]] such as history, or a BSc: Bachelor of Science degree such as those given by the London School of Economics, as the social sciences constitute one of the two main branches of [[science]] (the other being the [[natural sciences]]). In addition, some institutions have degrees for a particular social science, such as the [[Bachelor of Economics]] degree, though such specialized degrees are relatively rare in the United States.
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| − | == See also ==
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| − | {{Wikipedia-Books}}
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| − | {{Portal box|Sociology|Science}}
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| − | ;General:[[society]], [[culture]], [[structure and agency]], [[humanities]] ([[human science]])
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| − | ;Methods: [[historical method]], [[empiricism]], [[Representation theory]], [[scientific method]], [[Statistical hypothesis testing]], [[Regression]], [[Correlation]]
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| − | ;Areas: [[political sciences]], [[natural science]]s, [[behavioral science]]s, [[Geographic information science]]
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| − | ;History : [[history of science]], [[history of technology]]
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| − | ;Lists: [[fields of science]], [[list of major social sciences]], [[list of academic disciplines]]
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| − | ;People: [[Max Weber]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Sir John Lubbock]], [[Alfred Schutz]]
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| − | ;Other: [[behaviour]], [[labelling]], [[game theory]], "[[periodic table of human sciences]]" ([[Tinbergen's four questions]]), [[ethology]] and [[ethnology]], [[social action]], [[philosophy of social sciences]]
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| − | ;Fields:
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| − | {{Social sciences-footer}}
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| − | == Further reading ==
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| − | ;Wikibooks
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| − | * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology]
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| − | ;General sources
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| − | <!-- Listed by date; newest to oldest -->
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| − | {{colbegin}}
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| − | * Roger E. Backhouse and Philippe Fontaine, eds. (2010) ''The History of the Social Sciences Since 1945'' (Cambridge University Press) 256 pages; covers the conceptual, institutional, and wider histories of economics, political science, sociology, social anthropology, psychology, and human geography.
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| − | * Hargittai, E. (2009). [http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=268873 Research Confidential: Solutions to Problems Most Social Scientists Pretend They Never Have]. Ann Arbor: [[University of Michigan Press]].
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| − | * Hunt, E. F., & Colander, D. C. (2008). [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWofAAAACAAJ Social science: An introduction to the study of society]. Boston: Peason/Allyn and Bacon.
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| − | * Gorton, W. A. (2006). Karl Popper and the social sciences. SUNY series in the philosophy of the social sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.
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| − | * Galavotti, M. C. (2003). [http://books.google.com/books?id=VpForyYAYy0C Observation and experiment in the natural and social sciences]. Boston studies in the philosophy of science, v. 232. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
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| − | *Trigg, R. (2001). Understanding social science: A philosophical introduction to the social sciences. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers.
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| − | * Shionoya, Y. (1997). [http://books.google.com/books?id=fakFiE79qTAC Schumpeter and the idea of social science: A metatheoretical study]. Historical perspectives on modern economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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| − | *Delanty, G. (1997). Social science: Beyond constructivism and realism. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.
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| − | *[http://www.holycross.edu/departments/socant/rsinglet/ Singleton, Royce, A.], Straits, Bruce C. (1988). [http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA== "Approaches to Social Research"], [[Oxford University Press]]. ISBN 0-19-514794-4
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| − | * Rule, J. B. (1997). Theory and progress in social science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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| − | * Thomas, D. (1979). [http://books.google.com/books?id=-mY4AAAAIAAJ Naturalism and social science: a post-empiricist philosophy of social science]. CUP Archive. ISBN 0-521-29660-9, 9780521296601.
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| − | * Carey, H. C., & McKean, K. (1883). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ckEVAAAAYAAJ Manual of social science; Being a condensation of the "Principles of social science" of H.C. Carey]. Philadelphia: Baird.
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| − | * Harris, F. R. (1973). [http://books.google.com/books?id=mqQ9vf0JS_YC Social science and national policy]. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books; distributed by Dutton.
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| − | * Krimerman, L. I. (1969). The nature and scope of social science; A critical anthology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
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| − | * [[Max Weber|Weber, M]] (1904). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N14BAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA725 The Relations Of The Rural Community To Other Branches Of Social Science]''. Congress of arts and science: Universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904. Houghton, Mifflin and company, 1906
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| − | {{colend}}
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| − | ;Academic resources
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| − | <!-- Listed by date; newest to oldest -->
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| − | * The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ISSN: [http://ann.sagepub.com/ 1552-3349] (electronic) ISSN: 0002-7162 (paper), SAGE Publications
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| − | * Efferson, C. & Richerson, P.J. (In press). A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences. ''Philosophy and Biology''. [http://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/richerson/Prolegomena%204%200.pdf Full text]
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| − | ;Opponents and critics
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| − | <!-- Listed by date; newest to oldest -->
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| − | * Phil Hutchinson, [[Rupert Read]] and Wes Sharrock (2008). [http://books.google.com/books?id=IF01zvRg9ekC There's No Such Thing as a Social Science]. ISBN 978-0-7546-4776-8
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| − | * Sabia, D. R., & Wallulis, J. (1983). [http://books.google.com/books?id=IgDtHi4Sq-wC Changing social science]: Critical theory and other critical perspectives. Albany: State University of New York Press.
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| − | == References ==
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| − | ;20th and 21st century sources
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| − | * Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). [[Making Social Science Matter|Making social science matter]]: Why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again. Oxford, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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| − | * [[Neil J. Smelser]] and [[Paul B. Baltes]] (2001). [[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]], Amsterdam: Elsevier. (ed., available in [http://books.google.com/books?id=yVBXPf50EV0C limited preview] at Google books.)
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| − | * Byrne, D. S. (1998). [http://books.google.com/books?id=NaVSZXVdc-0C Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction]. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16296-3
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| − | * Kuper, A., & Kuper, J. (1985). The Social science encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the [http://books.google.com/books?id=S3zZ18tt3gkC 1996 version] is available.,.,)
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| − | * Lave, C. A., & March, J. G. (1993). [http://books.google.com/books?id=dcL3JqFkUvQC An introduction to models in the social sciences]. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.
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| − | * Perry, John and Erna Perry. ''Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science'' (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook
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| − | * Potter, D. (1988). [http://books.google.com/books?id=EssOAAAAQAAJ Society and the social sciences An introduction]. London: Routledge [u.a.].
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| − | *David L. Sills and [[Robert K. Merton]] (1968). [[International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]].
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| − | * Seligman, Edwin R. A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
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| − | * Ward, L. F. (1924). [http://books.google.com/books?id=qvUtAAAAIAAJ Dynamic sociology ; or, Applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences]. New York: D. Appleton.
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| − | * Leavitt, F. M., & Brown, E. (1920). [http://books.google.com/books?id=pz5FAAAAIAAJ Elementary social science]. New York: Macmillan.
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| − | * Bogardus, E. S. (1913). [http://books.google.com/books?id=nohDAAAAIAAJ Introduction to the social sciences; A textbook outline]. Los Angeles: Ralston Press.
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| − | * Small, A. W. (1910). [http://books.google.com/books?id=UEYWAAAAYAAJ The meaning of social science]. Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago press.
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| − | ;19th century sources
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| − | * Andrews, S. P., & Andrews, S. P. (1888). [http://books.google.com/books?id=0_8dAAAAIAAJ The science of society]. Boston, Mass: Sarah E. Holmes.
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| − | * Denslow, V. B. (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Vg82AAAAMAAJ Modern thinkers principally upon social science]: What they think, and why. Chicago: Belford, Clarke &.
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| − | * [[William Torrey Harris|Harris, William Torrey]] (1879). [http://books.google.com/books?id=MUUWAAAAYAAJ Method of Study in Social Science]: A Lecture Delivered Before the St. Louis Social Science Association, March 4, 1879. St. Louis: G.I. Jones and Co, 1879.
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| − | * Hamilton, R. S. (1873). [http://books.google.com/books?id=dkBAAAAAYAAJ Present status of social science. A review, historical and critical, of the progress of thought in social philosophy]. New York: H.L. Hinton.
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| − | * Carey, H. C. (1867). Principles of social science. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. [etc.]. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0RsWAAAAYAAJ Volume I], [http://books.google.com/books?id=LSEWAAAAYAAJ Volume II], [http://books.google.com/books?id=-yAWAAAAYAAJ Volume III].
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| − | * Calvert, G. H. (1856). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ibIqAAAAMAAJ Introduction to social science]: A discourse in three parts. New York: Redfield.
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| − | ==References==
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| − | <references/>
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